Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Cognitive Dissonance Theory argues that
the experience of dissonance (or incompatible beliefs and actions) is aversive
and people are highly motivated to avoid it. In their efforts to avoid feelings
of dissonance, people will avoid hearing views that oppose their own, change
their beliefs to match their actions, and seek reassurance after making a
difficult decision.
Communication Accommodation TheoryThis theoretical perspective
examines the underlying motivations and consequences of what happens when two
speakers shift their communication styles. Communication Accommodation theorists
argue that during communication, people will try to accommodate or adjust their
style of speaking to others. This is done in two ways: divergence and
convergence. Groups with strong ethnic or racial pride often use divergence to
highlight group identity. Convergence occurs when there is a strong need for
social approval, frequently from powerless individuals.
Coordinated Management of MeaningTheorists in Coordinated
Management of Meaning believe that in conversation, people co-create meaning by
attaining some coherence and coordination. Coherence occurs when stories are
told, and coordination exists when stories are lived. CMM focuses on the
relationship between an individual and his or her society. Through a
hierarchical structure, individuals come to organize the meaning of literally
hundreds of messages received throughout a day.
Cultivation AnalysisThis theory argues that television (and other
media) plays an extremely important role in how people view their world.
According to Cultivation Analysis, in modern Culture most people get much of
their information in a mediated fashion rather than through direct experience.
Thus, mediated sources can shape people’s sense of reality. This is especially
the case with regard to violence, according to the theory. Cultivation Analysis
posits that heavy television viewing cultivates a sense of the world that is
more violent and scarier than is actually warranted.
Cultural Approach to Organizations The Cultural Approach contends
that people are like animals who are suspended in webs that they created.
Theorists in this tradition argue that an organization’s culture is composed of
shared symbols, each of which has a unique meaning. Organizational stories,
rituals, and rites of passage are examples of what constitutes the culture of an
organization.
Cultural StudiesTheorists in cultural studies maintain that the
media represents ideologies of the dominant class in a society. Because media
are controlled by corporations, the information presented to the public is
necessarily influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies
theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influenced and framed with profit
in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media
influence and how power plays a role in the interpretation of culture.
DramatismThis theoretical position compares life to a drama. As in
dramatic action, life requires an actor, a scene, an act, some means for the
action to take place, and a purpose. A rhetorical critic can understand a
speaker’s motives by analyzing these elements. Further, Dramatism argues that
purging guilt is the ultimate motive, and rhetors can be successful when they
provide their audiences with a means for purging their guilt and a sense of
identification with the rhetor.
Expectancy Violations TheoryExpectancy Violation Theory examines
how nonverbal messages are structured. The theory advances that when
communicative norms are violated, the violation may be perceived either
favorably or unfavorably, depending on the perception that the receiver has of
the violator. Violating another’s expectations may be a strategy used over that
of conforming to another’s expectations.
Face-Negotiation TheoryFace-Negotiation Theory is concerned with
how people in individualistic and collectivistic cultures negotiate face in
conflict situations. The theory is based on face management, which describes how
people from different cultures manage conflict negotiation in order to maintain
face. Self-face and other-face concerns explain the conflict negotiation between
people from various cultures.
GroupthinkThe groupthink phenomenon occurs when highly cohesive
groups fail to consider alternatives that may effectively resolve group
dilemmas. Groupthink theorists contend that group members frequently think
similarly and are reluctant to share unpopular or dissimilar ideas with others.
When this occurs, groups prematurely make decisions, some of which can have
lasting consequences.
Muted Group TheoryMuted Group Theory maintains that language
serves men better than women (and perhaps European Americans better than African
Americans or other groups). This is the case because the variety of experiences
of European American men are named clearly in language, whereas the experiences
of other groups (such as women) are not. Due to this problem with language,
women appear less articulate than men in public settings. As women have similar
experiences, this situation should change.
The Narrative ParadigmThis theory argues that humans are
storytelling animals. The Narrative Paradigm proposes a narrative logic to
replace the traditional logic of argument. Narrative logic, or the logic of good
reasons, suggests that people judge the credibility of speakers by whether their
stories hang together clearly (coherence and whether their stories ring true
(fidelity). The Narrative Paradigm allows for a democratic judgment of speakers
because no one has to be trained in oratory and persuasion to make judgments
based on coherence and fidelity.
Organizational Information Theory This Theory argues that the main
activity of organizations is the process of making sense of equivocal
information. Organizational members accomplish this sense-making process through
enactment, selection, and retention of information. Organizations are successful
to the extent that they are able to reduce equivocality through these means.
Relational Dialectics TheoryRelational Dialectics suggests that
relational life is always in process. People in relationships continually feel
the pull-push of conflicting desires. Basically, people wish to have both
autonomy and connection, openness and protective-ness, and novelty and
predictability. As people communicate in relationships, they attempt to
reconcile these conflicting desires, but they never eliminate their needs for
both of the opposing pairs.
The RhetoricRhetorical theory is based on the available means of
persuasion. That is, a speaker who is interested in persuading his or her
audience should consider three rhetorical proofs: logical, emotional, and
ethical. Audiences are key to effective persuasion as well. Rhetorical
syllogism, requiring audiences to supply missing pieces of a speech, are also
used in persuasion.
Social Exchange TheoryThis theoretical position argues that the
major force in interpersonal relationships is the satisfaction of both people’s
self-interest. Theorists in Social Exchange posit that self-interest is not
necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. The
Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchange posit that self-interest
is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships.
The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchanges as analogous to
economic exchanges where people are satisfied when they receive a fair return on
their expenditures.
Social Penetration TheoryThis theory maintains that interpersonal
relationships evolve in some gradual and predictable fashion. Penetration
theorists believe that self-disclosure is the primary way that superficial
relationships progress to intimate relationships. Although self-disclosure can
lead to more intimate relationships, it can also leave one or more persons
vulnerable.
Spiral of Silence TheoryTheorists associated with Spiral of
Silence Theory argue that due to their enormous power, the mass media have a
lasting effect on public opinion. The theory maintains that mass media work
simultaneously with Majority public opinion to silence minority beliefs on
cultural issues. A fear of isolation prompts those with minority views to
examine the beliefs of others. Individuals who fear being socially isolated are
prone to conform to what they perceive to be a majority view.
Standpoint TheoryThis theory posits that people are situated in
specific social standpoints-they occupy different places in the social
hierarchy. Because of this, individuals view the social situation from
particular vantage points. By necessity, each vantage point provides only a
partial understanding of the social whole. Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs
of the hierarchy tend to understand the social whole. Yet, those who occupy the
lower rungs of the hierarchy tend to understand the social situation more fully
than those at the top. Sometimes, Standpoint Theory is referred to as Feminist
Standpoint Theory because of its application to how women’s and men’s standpoint
differ.
Structuration TheoryTheorists supporting the structurational
perspective argue that groups and organizations create structures, which can be
interpreted as an organization’s rules and resources. These structures, in turn,
create social systems in an organization. Structuration theorists posit that
groups and organizations achieve a life of their own because of the way their
members utilize their structures. Power structures guide the decision making
taking place in groups and organizations.
Symbolic Interaction TheoryThis theory suggests that people are
motivated to act based on the meanings they assign to people, things, and
events. Further, meaning is created in the language that people use both with
others and in private thought. Language allows people to develop a sense of self
and to interact with others in community.
Uncertainly Reduction TheoryUncertainty Reduction Theory suggests
that when strangers meet, their primary focus is on reducing their levels of
uncertainty in the situation. Their levels of uncertainty are located in both
behavioral and cognitive realms. That is, they may be unsure of how to behave
(or how the other person will behave), and they may also be unsure what they
think of the other and what the other person thinks of them. Further, people’s
uncertainty is both individual level and relational level. People are highly
motivated to use communication to reduce their uncertainty according to this
theory.
Uses and Gratifications TheoryUses and Gratifications theorists
explain why people choose and use certain media forms. The theory emphasizes a
limited effect position; that is, the media have a limithe effect on their
audiences because audiences are able to exercise control over their media. Uses
and Gratifications Theory attempts to answer the following: What do people do
with the media
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